Distorted History: AI’s Skewed Visions of the Ancient World
When you see an image online, can you tell if it was made by a human? In 2024, generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools have more likely than not played some part in most forms of online content. This generated content is built on a time restricted set of data that is usually not verified. For content related to the ancient world, there are many biases in modern media that have translated into AI-generated imagery, which is beginning to affect how we understand ancient history. In this exhibit, we explore AI-generated images of ancient figures produced by generative image AI tools and compare them to traditional ancient depictions and modern versions of the same characters. Through these comparisons we can see how generative image AI skews the ancient world and learn how to identify these biases.
The research for this exhibit was completed as part of the Gerard Butler with a Spear: Locating Modern Stereotypes for the Classical World in Generative Image AI project stream in the Department of Classics at the University of Reading. The preparation of this exhibit was supported by a Research Collaboration and Impact Fund (RCIF) Grant and an Undergraduate Research Opportunities Programme (UROP) Grant from the University of Reading and an Ancient Worlds, Modern Communities Grant from the Society for Classical Studies (SCS).
What is a Generative AI Tool?
- There are over 2000 kinds of generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools, including:
- Conversational AI tools
- Text-to-image tools
- Text-to-video tools
- Text-to-audio tools.
- Although the things they produce look like something a human could make, we need to remember that generative AI tools are not human.
- They do not think, they have no feelings, and they do not have any intentions.
- Instead, they are more like complex input-output machines. Like a calculator, they process an input, usually a text, and calculate the most likely output. For example:
A. OpenAI, ChatGPT-4o, 8 August 2024 version, personal communication, generated on 6 September 2024 by Edward A. S. Ross.
Content Issues
- The body of information that makes an AI tool’s knowledge base is called a dataset, a compilation of tens of thousands of texts, videos, images or sounds.
- This data is taken from popular websites, social media, Wikipedia articles and online archives, but not always with permission.
- Artists, authors and even social media users found their creations were used to train generative AI tools without their approval.
- Companies like OpenAI and Google believe that they should be able to build their datasets with copyrighted material for free under fair-use rules, but this will be decided in court.
A. Stability AI, DreamStudio 2.1, 7 December 2023 version, personal communication, generated 27 June 2024 by Jacinta Hunter. Prompt: “The Muses.”
Worker Exploitation
- A common way to train a generative AI tool is to assign every text, image, sound, and video in massive datasets with a tag that explains to the tool what it is supposed to represent.
- For example, this picture might be tagged as “red”, “woman”, “sad”, “moon” or “Erinyes” depending on what the tool is being trained to generate.
- Companies like OpenAI and ScaleAI outsourced this work to firms in the Global South, such as Kenya and the Philippines. These firms paid workers approximately $1.38-2.00 USD per hour to tag 1000 data points each day. In some cases, they primarily identified if the data contained abuse, violence or hate speech.
A. Midjourney, Midjourney 6, 14 February version, personal communication, generated 6 July 2024 by Edward A. S. Ross. Prompt: “Erinyes.”
Environmental Impact
- Recent sustainability studies found that AI-powered Google searches uses 5 times as much energy as a standard Google search.
- As of July 2024, one AI image generation uses an average of 0.01 kilowatt hours (kWh), which is just under the average energy required to fully charge a smartphone (0.012 kWh).
- To prepare this exhibit we generated 3,850 images, using an average total of 38.5 kWh, which is equivalent to 55 loads in the washing machine or watching TV for 53 and a half days.
A. OpenAI, DALL-E 3, 10 January 2024 version, personal communication, generated 16 June 2024 by Jacinta Hunter. Prompt: “Create an image of Charybdis.”
Nike
A Goddess with a Brand Deal
A. Boeotian kylix (drinking cup) depicting the goddess Nike on one side (c. 440-430 BCE) (Ure 29.5.2).
B. Image generated by the AI platform Midjourney from the prompt ‘Nike the Greek goddess’, generated on 7th July 2024.
C. Allegory of Victory by Mathieu Le Nain (c. 1635).
Nike was the ancient Greek personification and goddess of victory, associated with war and athletic competitions in the ancient world. She has continued to symbolise victories throughout time, as in Le Nain’s interpretation of her defeating a figure symbolising deceit. She also lends her name to the modern sportswear company Nike, the branding of which features on the trainers worn by the AI image of Nike.
Extra Images
Medusa
A Snake-haired Woman
A. High Archaic amphora (storage jar) depicting the gorgon Medusa on the neck (c. 550-500 BCE) (Ure 47.6.1).
B. Image generated by the AI platform DreamStudio from the prompt ‘Medusa on amphora’, generated 19th June 2024.
C. The villain Medusa from the comic book Wonder Woman, vol. 2, no. 205 (August 2004).
In Greek mythology, Medusa was a Gorgon, a monster with snakes for hair and the ability to turn anything into stone with her gaze. In antiquity her image was apotropaic, used to turn away evil, emphasising her fearsome nature. The Latin poet Ovid wrote of her transformation from a beautiful maiden to this fearsome monster. The AI image has been strongly influenced by Ovid, showing Medusa as a beautiful woman, with only the snake hair differentiating her as monstrous. This hyper-feminine depiction of Medusa may also stem from modern interpretations, including her role as a villain within the Wonder Woman comic books.
Extra Images
Amazons
Exotic, Scantily-clad Warriors
A. Attic skyphos (wine cup) depicting Amazons in battle (c. 510-500 BCE) (Ure 26.12.11).
B. Image generated by the AI platform DALL-E-3 from the prompt ‘create an image of an Amazon warrior’, generated 18th June 2024.
C. Poster for the television programme Xena: Warrior Princess (1995-2001, Syndication).
The Amazons were an all-female mythical warrior race, who feature in myths of the Trojan War, the Labours of Herakles, Theseus’ kingship in Athens, and much else. Ancient depictions emphasise their natures as fearsome warriors and non-Greeks, but AI images show them as scantily-clad women. This interpretation may stem from sexualised depictions in modern interpretations, such as Xena: Warrior Princess.
Extra Images
Odysseus
Unable to Hide under a Ram
A. Roman terracotta oil lamp depicting Odysseus fleeing the cave of Polyphemus by clinging to the underside of a ram (c. 1st century CE) (Ure 50.4.25).
B. Image generated by AI platform Copilot Designer from the prompt ‘Odysseus clinging to the belly of a sheep’, generated 18th June 2024.
C. Odysseus in the Cave of Polyphemus by Jacob Jordaens (c. 1635).
Within Homer’s Odyssey, an epic poem narrating the hero Odysseus’ journey home from the Trojan War, Odysseus escapes the cave of the one-eyed man-eating giant Polyphemus first by blinding him and then by hiding himself underneath a ram. This scene is shown in both ancient and modern art, but AI has failed to interpret the concept of hiding underneath a ram correctly.
Extra Images
Medea
Escaping on her Dragon Chariot
A. Gem cast depicting Medea driving a chariot pulled by dragons (Ure 2009.10.2.384).
B. Image generated by AI platform Copilot Designer from the prompt ‘Medea flying away on a chariot pulled by dragons’, generated 19th June 2024.
C. Medea Flew High Over the City by Virginia Frances Sterret, illustration from Tanglewood Tales by Nathaniel Hawthorne (1921).
Medea was the princess of Colchis, near the Black Sea, who betrayed her family to help her husband, the Greek hero Jason, capture the golden fleece. In Euripides’ tragedy, Medea, she kills her children as revenge for Jason taking another wife and flees the scene on the chariot of her grandfather, the sun god Helios. This is depicted in both ancient and modern art, and accurately recreated by AI, but did Helios really need dragons to power his chariot?
Extra Images
Odysseus
Where are the Sirens?
A. Plaster cast depicting Odysseus strapped to the mast of a ship as it sails past singing sirens (Ure 2008.9.10).
B. Image generated by AI platform Copilot Designer from the prompt ‘Odysseus tied to ship mast while sailing past harpies’, generated 18th June 2024.
C. DVD cover for Ulysses (1954, Paramount Pictures).
In another episode from Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus and his crew sail past the Sirens, mythical creatures who were a mix of bird and woman. Their song lured sailors to their deaths, so Odysseus had his men tie him to the mast of his ship in order to hear their song and live. This popular image from ancient art is recreated in modern films, as with Ulysses (1954). Whilst the AI image depicts Odysseus tied to the mast, it has failed to grasp the hybrid nature of the Sirens, only showing feathers.
Extra Images
Andromeda
Chained to the Stars
A. Gem cast depicting Andromeda leaning against a rock, Perseus stands before her holding the head of Medusa behind his back (Ure 2009.9.174).
B. Image generated by the AI platform DALL-E-3 from the prompt ‘Create an image of Andromeda’, generated 21st June 2024.
C. Perseus and Andromeda by Francois Lemoyne (c. 1723).
Andromeda, a princess of Ethiopia, was sacrificed to the sea monster Ketos to appease the sea god Poseidon. Ancient images show Andromeda chained to the cliff face to be devoured by Ketos, but the hero Perseus rescued her and used the decapitated head of Medusa to turn the monster to stone. Ancient astronomers saw both Andromeda and Perseus as constellations in the night sky. The image of Andromeda bound by chains, popular in modern art, has infiltrated AI interpretations. The AI image here incorporated celestial background, influenced by the Andromeda constellation and its galaxy.
Extra Images
Artemis
A Horned Goddess
A. Corinthian skyphos (wine cup) depicting the goddess Artemis between two lions (c. 550-500 BCE) (Ure 27.1.11).
B. Image generated by the AI platform NightCafe from the prompt ‘Artemis’, generated 17th June 2024.
C. Image of the character Artemis from the video game Hades (2020).
Artemis was the ancient Greek goddess of the hunt. She is commonly depicted with a bow and arrow and surrounded by animals, especially her sacred deer. In modern times she has taken on new associations, for example being depicted with horns as in the Hades video game, something that has infiltrated AI’s perception of her.
Extra Images
Hades
Burning with Blue Fire
A. Image generated by the AI platform DreamStudio from the prompt ‘Hades’, generated 26th June 2024.
B. Cover of Disney Villains: Hades, vol. 5 (24th January 2024).
Hades was the ancient Greek god of the underworld, the land of the dead. Maybe because of this he isn’t very common in ancient Greek art. He is famously depicted with flaming blue hair and blue skin in Disney’s Hercules (1997), which has influenced AI depictions of him.
Extra Images
Aphrodite
Served on the Half Shell
A. Roman Period Statue of Aphrodite and Eros from the Temple of Aphrodite in Cyrene (Ure L.2005.10.3).
B. Image generated by the AI platform Shutterstock from the prompt ‘Aphrodite’, generated 2nd July 2024.
C. The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli (c. 1478).
Aphrodite was the ancient Greek goddess of love, beauty, and consensus. According to Hesiod, she was born from the sea, when the genitals of the titan Ouranos mixed with it. Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus, reflects this version of her birth. He emphasises Aphrodite’s connection with nature by showing her on a clam shell. This painting has clearly influenced our AI image, which also shows Aphrodite emerging from a shell.
Extra Images
Hecuba
Grief in Ruins
A. Attic amphora (storage jar) depicting the death of Priam and Astyanax as Hecuba supplicates (c. 550-540 BCE) (British Museum 1842,0314.3)
B. Image generated by the AI platform DALL-E-3 from the prompt ‘Create an image of Euripides’ Hecuba’, generated 20th June 2024.
C. The Despair of Hecuba by Pierre Peyron (c. 1784).
Hekabe/Hecuba was the queen of Troy, the city the Greeks sacked in the Trojan War. Ancient texts such as Homer’s Iliad and Euripides’ Trojan Women show the war’s devastating consequences, particularly for Hecuba, who loses all her children, including Hector, prince of Troy. Both Peyron’s drawing and the AI image here portray this grief, with an added backdrop of a ruined city in the latter.
Extra Images
Clytemnestra
Bring Me the Net!
A. Attic calyx krater (mixing bowl) depicting Agamemnon trapped in a net by Aegisthos and Clytemnestra (c. 460 BCE) (MFA Boston 63.1246)
B. Image generated by the AI platform Shutterstock from the prompt ‘Clytemnestra’, generated 2nd July 2024.
C. Photo from a modern production of Aeschylus’ Agamemnon (National Theatre, 1981) (copyright Donald Cooper).
Clytemnestra was the wife of Agamemnon, the king of Argos and commander of the Greek forces in the Trojan war. She is infamous in Greek myth for murdering her husband upon his return from the war as revenge for his sacrifice of their daughter, Iphigeneia. This story is recounted in Aeschylus’ tragedy Agamemnon, which makes repeated reference to Clytemnestra ensnaring her husband in a net to deceive and kill him. This is something that the AI image picked up on, perhaps drawing on modern productions of the tragedy.
Extra Images
Arachne
Woven into the Story
A. Roman frieze on the Forum of Nerva depicting the myth of Arachne and Minerva (c. 96-98 CE) (copyright David Lown).
B. Image generated by the AI platform Shutterstock from the prompt ‘Arachne’, generated 2nd July 2024.
C. Athena and Arachne by Antonio Tempesta (c. 1606).
The Roman poet Ovid told a transformation story about Arachne, who foolishly boasted that she was a better weaver than the goddess of craft, Athena. The goddess challenged Arachne to a weaving contest. When she discovered that Arachne was the better weaver, Athena turned her into a spider. There are few images of Arachne from antiquity but her story has been a popular in modern art. Tempesta’s interpretation shows a fully armed Athena transforming Arachne. The AI image here has picked up on Arachne’s association with weaving and shows an armed Athena in the background.
Extra Images
Apollo and Daphne
Attraction Turning into Wood
A. Paestan bell krater (wine mixing bowl) depicting Apollo holding a laurel tree and speaking to an elderly satyr as Hera looks on (c. 360-340 BCE) (Ure 51.7.11).
B. Image generated by the AI platform Copilot Designer from the prompt ‘Apollo chasing Daphne as she turns into a tree’, generated 5th July 2024.
C. Apollo and Daphne by J.W. Waterhouse (1908).
In ancient images of Apollo, the Greek god of music, judgment, and prophecy, we recognise him by the laurel (bay) branch that he holds. He fell in love with Daphne, a nymph, who wasn’t interested and asked her father, the river god Peneios, for help. When Apollo finally caught her, Daphne turned into a laurel tree. Waterhouse shows Daphne in mid-transformation, wrapped in tree branches, with Apollo behind her. This is similar to the AI image which shows her covered in leaves and tree roots, however it also shows the pursuing Apollo as wooden.
Extra Images
Hector and Andromache
Tears of Joy?
A. Image generated by the AI platform Copilot Designer from the prompt ‘Baby Astyanax, scared of his father, Hector’s plumed helmet, cries in his mother, Andromache’s, arms. Hector and Andromache laugh affectionately’, generated 5th July 2024.
B. The Farewell of Hector to Andromaque and Astyanax by Karl Friedrich Deckler (1918).
In the Iliad, Homer narrates a crucial moment during the final year of the Trojan War when Hector, prince of Troy, meets with his wife, Andromache, and their baby son, Astyanax. Andromache begs her husband not to fight in battle, knowing it will bring his death, but he refuses to withdraw from the fighting, as he seeks glory. Hector seeks to embrace Astyanax, but the baby is scared by Hector’s helmet, which he removes. Ancient art provides many images of women bidding farewell to warriors but not that match Homer’s telling. This scene is portrayed as a tender moment in Deckler’s painting, which the AI image seeks to recreate. The AI image also shows Andromache crying. Who is the other figure laughing in the background?
Extra Images
Erinyes
A Red Role to Play
A. Image generated by the AI platform DALL-E-Free from the prompt ‘Erinyes’, generated 26th June 2024.
B. Illustration of the Erinyes from the Dungeons and Dragons Forgotten Realms Monster Manual (5th edition).
The Erinyes, also known as Eumenenides or the Furies, are a group of winged monsters who exact vengeance on mortals who have committed serious crimes, by following them relentlessly, sometimes until the individual is driven to madness. They chase Orestes, who killed his mother, Clytemnestra, to avenge her murder of his father, Agamemnon. They continue to evoke fear as monsters in modern popular culture, for example, in the role-playing game Dungeons and Dragons. The Monster Manual depiction appears to have influenced the AI image displayed here, as both show the Erinyes with red wings.
Extra Images
Cleopatra
From the Golden Age of Film
A. Image generated by the AI platform Midjourney from the prompt ‘Cleopatra’, generated on 6th June 2024.
B. Poster for the film Cleopatra (1963).
Cleopatra VII was the last Greek ruler of Egypt, descended from Ptolemy, a general of Alexander the Great. She ruled from 51 BCE until her death in 30 BCE. She is famous for her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, influential Roman leaders. Her reputation as a seductress originated in ancient Roman propaganda, which was likely started by Octavian, Mark Antony’s political opponent and the future Emperor Augustus. His claims eventually influenced popular culture. Cleopatra is notably depicted by Elizabeth Taylor in the 1963 film Cleopatra, whose likeness is replicated in the AI image shown.
Extra Images
Bacchus
A God of Grapes and Vine Crowns
A. Gem cast depicting Bacchus on a donkey, surrounded by revellers in a drunken procession (Ure 2008.2.1.63).
B. Image generated by the AI platform Shutterstock from the prompt ‘Bacchus’, generated 7th July 2024.
C. Triumph of Bacchus by Jacob Jordaens (c. 1645).
Bacchus was the Roman god of wine and fertility, also associated with the theatre. In antiquity his festivals were associated with drunken processions, as seen in both ancient and modern depictions. As the patron god of wine, he is commonly shown with vines and grapes, which are emphasised in the AI image.
Extra Images
Thanks
We would like to thank the following people for their help organizing this exhibit:
Jackie Baines (Lead Organizer)
Shona Carter-Griffiths (Image Generation)
Hannah Gage (Object Selection/Label Writing)
Jayne Holly (Exhibit Installation)
Jacinta Hunter (Image Generation)
Matthew Knight (Object Photography)
Edward A. S. Ross (Lead Organizer/Graphic Design)
Amy C. Smith (Exhibit Editing)
Adél Ternovácz (Gemcast Drawing)